B3002 GROUND ~1.0 hour study

Formation Procedures & Safety

Detailed procedures for formation positions, maneuvers, rejoins, and safety protocols

OBJECTIVE

Equip trainees with detailed knowledge of formation procedures in the T-38 Talon, including position references, control inputs, rejoin geometry, lost wingman protocols, and safety measures. This lesson focuses on the "how" of formation flying - the specific techniques and references wingmen use to maintain position and execute maneuvers safely.

Prerequisite: B3001 - Formation Communications & Visual Signals. This lesson assumes familiarity with radio calls and visual signals covered in B3001.

QUICK REFERENCE - KEY PARAMETERS

Rejoin Speed

350 KIAS

Wing Work Speed

330-350 KIAS

Min ET Speed

230 KIAS

Safety Bubble

500 ft

FORMATION POSITION REFERENCES

FINGERTIP - Detailed Position References

Fingertip is the primary close formation position. Proper position is maintained by referencing three axes simultaneously.

FINGERTIP POSITION GEOMETRY

Bearing

~30°

Aft of 3/9 line

Spacing

~10 ft

Wingtip separation

Vertical

Slightly Low

Below #1's plane

VISUAL REFERENCES - WHAT #2 SEES

STACK

Should NOT see any of lead's aircraft bottom

If you see belly = too low | If you see top of fuselage = too high

LINE

Should see the ENTIRE leading edge of lead's wing

If wing tip hidden = too far forward | If trailing edge visible = too far aft

SPACING

Should only see ONE engine nozzle of lead

If you see both engines = too wide | If you see intake = too close

CONTROL CORRECTIONS

Stack (Vertical)

Push/Pull stick

Direct pitch control

Line (Fore/Aft)

Power adjustments

Throttle forward/aft

Spacing (Lateral)

Small bank changes

Almost imperceptible

Key Principle: Make small, smooth corrections. Large inputs cause oscillations and make position harder to maintain. "Chase the correction, not the position."

ROUTE - Detailed Position References

Route formation provides better clearing capability and is used for inflight checks. More relaxed than fingertip but still requires precise references.

ROUTE POSITION GEOMETRY

Bearing

30° to LAB

3/9 line to 10° back

Spacing

2 widths - 500 ft

Ship widths from lead

Vertical

Level

When not turning

VISUAL REFERENCES BY FLIGHT CONDITION

Level Flight

Level with #1 - place #1's helmet on the horizon

Inside the Turn

Keep #1 in sight just above the canopy rail

You are below and inside - must look up to see lead

Outside the Turn

Maintain same vertical references as echelon turn

You are above and outside - look down to see lead

#1 Maneuvering Limits in Route: Moderate turns and pitch changes only. Maximum bank angle of 60°. All turns in route are echelon turns without additional signals.

CLOSE TRAIL - Detailed Position References

Close trail is flown directly behind lead. Same maneuvering limits as wing work. Primary control is power.

CLOSE TRAIL POSITION GEOMETRY

Spacing

1-2 lengths

Aircraft lengths behind

Vertical

Just below

#1's jetwash

Lateral

Centered

Directly behind

VISUAL REFERENCES - WHAT #2 SEES

Two Ship Lengths Reference

Tips of #1's elevator line up approximately 1/3 the way out the wings (just past the dihedral brake)

Vertical Reference

Exhaust stacks appear on top of wings

Any space between exhaust and wing = too high

Lateral Reference

Place #1's wingtips between the AOA indexer and mag compass

If you fall behind: Move off to the side BEFORE adding power. This allows you to better judge closure rate and avoid overshooting into lead's jetwash.

REJOIN PROCEDURES - DETAILED TECHNIQUES

Straight Ahead Rejoin

Contract speed: 350 KIAS. Rejoin to LEFT side unless otherwise directed.

PHASE 1: INITIAL POSITIONING

1

Increase airspeed - establish 20-30 knots of overtake

2

Position behind and slightly below #1 (6 o'clock position)

Put #1 on the horizon to ensure you're below wake turbulence

PHASE 2: CLOSURE

3

Close until approximately 500 feet

4

Bank slightly away (left) and reduce power

Reduce power at a rate where #1 appears to move back in windscreen

PHASE 3: STABILIZE

5

Plan to arrive in route with same airspeed as #1

6

Once established in route, move forward into fingertip

Turning Rejoin

#1 makes first wing dip in direction of turn. Maintain 30° bank unless otherwise briefed.

TURNING REJOIN GEOMETRY

1

Begin turn in same direction as #1

Establish vertical separation - place #1 within 2 widths of horizon

2

Begin with 20-30 knots of closure and moderate lead pursuit

3

When #1's vertical stabilizer bisects the outside wing (3 aspect/30 AA), reduce bank to maintain relative reference line

ASPECT ANGLE CORRECTIONS

Stabilizer → Wingtip

AA is INCREASING

Action: Shallow bank angle to decrease

Stabilizer → Wing Root

AA is DECREASING

Action: Increase bank angle

FINAL APPROACH TO POSITION

4

#1 should appear slightly above horizon

Star (SA) on wing over the saddle

5

Inside 300-500 feet, normal fingertip references become visible

6

Begin decreasing closure with power or speed brake

7

Stabilize in route with slight positive closure, then move to fingertip

WING WORK & MANEUVERING TECHNIQUES

Wing Work (Levels 1/2/3)

Flown in fingertip. Airspeed: 330-350 KIAS

#1 PROCEDURES

  • • Maintain constant back stick pressure at all times
  • • Be wings level when pulling through the horizon
  • • Monitor #2's position throughout
  • • Be ready to take evasive action or direct breakout

#2 PROCEDURES BY TURN DIRECTION

Turns AWAY (You're Outside)

  • • Match #1's roll rate
  • • Increase back stick pressure
  • • Climb to maintain vertical position
  • • Increase power to maintain airspeed/position
  • • Reduce power when #1 rolls out

Turns INTO (You're Inside)

  • • Match #1's roll rate
  • • Add slight forward pressure to maintain position
  • • Reduce power
  • • Prepare to add power on rollout

Echelon Turn

Accomplished in fingertip or route. All turns in route are echelon without signal. Max 60° bank.

ECHELON TURN PARAMETERS

Max Bank

60°

Spacing

3 wingspans

Reference

#1 on horizon

#2 CONTROL INPUTS

Stack (Vertical)

BANK

Keep #1 on horizon

Line (Fore/Aft)

POWER

Throttle adjustments

Spacing

BACK STICK

G-loading

In level turn: #1's fuselage should bisect the horizon

Crossunder Procedure

Visual signal: Small sharp wing dip in direction #1 wants #2 to go.

#2 CROSSUNDER SEQUENCE

1

Reduce power as required, move back and below #1 to establish nose-tail clearance

2

Add slight power to stop rearward movement

3

Bank slightly toward new side (creates small Heading Crossing Angle)

4

Add power as required to maintain spacing

#2's canopy bow should be superimposed on trailing edge of #1's elevator

5

Once on new side, adjust heading to match #1

6

Add power to move forward and up into position

7

Reduce power to stabilize in position

EXTENDED TRAIL (ET) / FIGHTING WING

Extended Trail Parameters

ET POSITION CONE

Bearing

30-45°

Off #1's tail

Range

500-2,500 ft

Fighting wing

Min Speed

230 KIAS

Do not go below

Airspeed

330-350 KIAS

Working speed

FIGHTING WING CONE

#1 3/9 500 ft BUBBLE 30° 45° 500 ft 2,500 ft #2 30° (inner) 45° (outer) KIO zone

#2 maintains position within the fighting wing cone (30-45° off #1, 500-2500 ft). Do NOT stay in #1's direct 6 o'clock high/low.

#2 PROCEDURES

  • • Maneuver into fighting wing cone, call "in"
  • • Set briefed power setting
  • • Use varying degrees of lead pursuit to maintain the fighting wing cone
  • • Little time should be spent in lag pursuit
  • • Do not stay in #1's 6 o'clock high/low - they need to monitor your position

KNOCK-IT-OFF CONDITIONS

500-ft Safety Bubble

KIO immediately if any aircraft enters another's 500-foot bubble

3/9 Line Crossing

KIO if #2 crosses #1's 3/9 line (forward of beam)

LOST WINGMAN & SAFETY PROCEDURES

Lost Wingman - Detailed Procedures

Execute immediately upon losing visual contact with lead. The goal is deconfliction first, then reestablish visual.

LOST WINGMAN BY SITUATION

Wings Level Flight

#1 Procedures:

  • • Maintain current flight profile
  • • Acknowledge #2's call
  • • Transmit attitude (altitude/heading)

#2 Procedures:

  • • Turn AWAY from #1's last known position
  • • 15° bank for 15 seconds
  • • Inform #1
  • • Resume course after separation

Outside the Turn (You're on the outside)

#1 Procedures:

  • • Roll out of the turn
  • • Acknowledge #2's call
  • • Transmit attitude

#2 Procedures:

  • • Reverse direction of turn
  • • 15° bank for 15 seconds
  • • Inform #1
  • • Roll out, continue straight to ensure separation

Inside the Turn (You're on the inside)

#1 Procedures:

  • • Maintain course
  • • Acknowledge #2's call
  • • Transmit attitude

#2 Procedures:

  • • Momentarily reduce power
  • • Tell #1 to roll out
  • • Maintain bank angle
  • • You'll pass behind #1

Memory Aid - "15 for 15": 15° bank for 15 seconds provides adequate separation. After visual is regained, #1 wing rocks #2 back in.

Breakout Procedure

Directed by #1 or initiated by #2 for safety. Immediate action to create separation.

#2 BREAKOUT SEQUENCE

1

On "Breakout" call or safety need - acknowledge "Two"

2

Immediately turn away from lead - 15° bank

3

Hold for 15 seconds (or until lead directs rollout)

4

Roll wings level on "Rollout" call

5

Report "Visual" when #1 is in sight

6

Await #1's wing rock to rejoin

Battle Damage Assessment (BDA)

Visual inspection of another aircraft for damage. Performed from specific positions for complete coverage.

BDA INSPECTION POSITIONS

Standard BDA (#2 inspects #1)

  • • Move to opposite wing from current position
  • • Inspect from wingtip to wingtip
  • • Check all visible surfaces
  • • Report findings to lead

BDA for #2 (Lead Change)

  • • #1 may call for lead change
  • • #2 takes lead temporarily
  • • #1 inspects #2's aircraft
  • • Lead change back when complete

INSPECTION CHECKLIST

Wings/Control Surfaces

Fuselage/Canopy

Landing Gear

Engine/Exhaust

Fluid Leaks

Hung Ordnance

GENERAL SAFETY PROTOCOLS

FORMATION SAFETY MINIMUMS

Min Altitude

500 ft AGL

Low-level ops

Safety Bubble

500 ft

All aircraft

Weather Mins

1,500 / 3

Ceiling/Visibility

Rejoin Separation

500 ft min

Until established

IMMEDIATE KIO CONDITIONS

  • • Any aircraft enters 500-ft safety bubble
  • • Loss of visual in close formation
  • • #2 crosses #1's 3/9 line (in ET)
  • • Unsafe closure rate
  • • Aircraft malfunction
  • • Physiological issue
  • • Radio failure
  • • Any safety concern

OPS CHECK FREQUENCY

Perform ops checks (fuel state, G-tolerance) at:

  • • Passing 10,000' MSL (climb check)
  • • Level-off / entering working area
  • • After Gx maneuvers (pitchout)
  • • Prior to RTB / leaving working area
  • • Any time requested by either aircraft

COMPLETION STANDARDS

Trainees will demonstrate proficiency in formation procedures and safety through scenario discussions, diagram interpretation, and verbal examination. Trainees must:

  • • Describe visual references for fingertip, route, and close trail positions
  • • Explain control inputs for stack, line, and spacing corrections
  • • Describe straight ahead and turning rejoin procedures step-by-step
  • • Explain #2 procedures for wing work turns (into/away)
  • • Describe the fighting wing cone and ET KIO conditions
  • • Execute lost wingman procedures for all three situations (wings level, inside turn, outside turn)
  • • State all immediate KIO conditions
  • • Describe BDA inspection positions and checklist items

Completion: Demonstrate understanding through scenario exercises, diagram interpretation, and verbal examination

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